Culture and Rationality in Herbert Marcuse’s Thought

Extended abstract
1- Introduction
Herbert Marcuse, a preeminent political philosopher of the 20th century, left an indelible mark on social theories. Shaped by the harrowing aftermath of the First World War, he became acutely aware of issues surrounding violence and humanitarian concerns, including the burgeoning awareness of environmental issues. Marcuse's distinctive contribution lies in his fusion of phenomenology and social philosophy, a synthesis that illuminates his analysis. Upon emigrating to the United States, the conflagration of the Second World War significantly influenced his intellectual evolution. It led him to scrutinize the technology-driven, consumer-centric American society through the lens of technological and instrumental rationality, a concept initially expounded by Max Weber decades earlier. In Marcuse's perspective, technological rationality serves as a yardstick for evaluating individual rationality. He posits that both people and their society are subjugated and manipulated by technology, which not only supplants human efforts across industries but permeates all aspects of life. Consequently, instrumental rationality, technological rationality, their interplay with culture, and the intricate connections that society and culture establish through instrumental rationality constitute the focal points of analysis within the culture industry (German: Kulturindustrie), a pivotal concept for Marcuse and other luminaries of the Frankfurt School. This study delves into Marcuse's viewpoints and theories regarding the repercussions of instrumental rationality in culture and human existence, which he coins as the "logos of life." It also seeks to dissect his critique of the culture industry, rooted in the notion of technological domination, heavily influenced by Martin Heidegger's insights. Lastly, the study investigates the impact of Sigmund Freud's concept of desire in Marcuse's articulation of technological rationality and its interaction with contemporary culture.
2- Theoretical framework
Herbert Marcuse posits that reason operates through universal concepts, serving as the framework for organizing the boundless flow of human experience into a coherent and intelligible world. However, he acknowledges a longstanding philosophical insight dating back to Plato, which recognizes the inherent incompleteness in the ordering function of reason. Philosophers have thus sought to identify and elucidate the specific nature of this incompleteness. According to Marcuse, concepts cannot be entirely reduced to particular instances. They possess a transcendent quality that is perceived by the experiencing subject as a sense of imperfection or incompleteness. Therefore, he attributes this aspect to the realm of imagination rather than immediate perception, contending that only the imagination possesses the capacity to project beyond the given reality towards an ideal form. In Marcuse's framework, the imagination assumes a crucial role in rationality by directing the subject towards an existing, albeit unrealized, dimension of the experiential world. Drawing upon Hegelian terminology, he views the tension between the real and the ideal as the essence of the negative. Consequently, the imagination is both a psychological faculty and a wellspring of creative insights into reality. By ascribing a cognitive function to the imagination, Marcuse establishes a connection between ontology and psychology, rooted in Sigmund Freud's theory of the imagination, a link he endeavors to develop further in his work, "Eros and Civilization."
 
3- Methodology
Data collection for this study relied on an extensive library research and indexing process. Initially, a comprehensive selection of sources was identified, encompassing a wide array of published materials such as books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, periodicals, available journal articles in both Persian and English, compilations of papers from scholarly conferences, and documents indexed in Iranian and foreign databases. These sources were then meticulously examined to extract and index the essential information, ensuring precise source attribution. Subsequently, the amassed data were systematically categorized according to a logical framework and subjected to thorough analysis. 
4- Discussion
Herbert Marcuse contends that art stands as one of the most pivotal means for human liberation and emancipation from the culture industry, a concept inherently entwined with his "logos of life." In Marcuse's lexicon, "logos" pertains to the experiential world, encompassing the realities and the inherent value potentials that propel its historical evolution. Within this construct of logos, a normative principle, an "ought," transcends the realm of existing facts. Marcuse elucidates this interplay between the "is" and the "ought" through the concept of a two-dimensional ontology: the first dimension encapsulates empirical facts, while the second dimension encompasses the evaluative realm of potentialities. Scientific-technical rationality, as posited by Marcuse, strips the experiential world of many of its contents, notably the secondary qualities. In response, he repudiates this "one-dimensional" ontology and posits that the experiential world, as understood through phenomenology, brims with rich content that is often overlooked and indeed diminished by scientific methodologies. Furthermore, this perspective bridges the chasm between values and facts. Marcuse argues that humanity's connection to the world is forged through interaction with nature and production, a profound affiliation that is not solely causal and material but also existential in nature. It endows human existence with meaning and delineates what it signifies to be human, fostering participation in a distinct mode of being—a cultural heritage to which liberated individuals return.
5- Conclusion and recommendations
Herbert Marcuse posits that technological rationality, a form of rationality rooted in domination and social control, exerts profound dominance in advanced industrial societies. This type of rationality, based on formal and instrumental principles, supersedes the more intrinsic and evaluative forms of reason that once characterized pre-industrial societies. It transforms the fabric of everyday life into what Marcuse terms a "technological reality," wherein individuals' perceptions, experiences, and thoughts are profoundly intertwined with the portrayal of objects and elements of the natural world as instruments or means to an end. To counter this situation, Marcuse introduces the concept of the "Great Refusal" and underscores the vital importance of resistance as a means to reconnect with the inherent value of one's existence. Life, in his view, necessitates a return to the fundamental tenets of human liberation, unveiling the immense potential latent in each individual. This entails departing from the shallowness of the consumer-oriented modern lifestyle, as it represents a life detached from false needs, in stark contrast to the artificial existence perpetuated by the culture industry.